יוונית מודרנית/שיעור 1
מתוך ויקיספר, אוסף ספרי הלימוד והמדריכים החופשי.
שיעור 1: קריאה, היגוי, כינויי השם, ופעלים בהטיה הראשונה
תוכן עניינים |
[עריכה] קצת על השפה היוונית
The Greek language is one of the oldest written languages in the world, and Greek literary culture extends back in time even past the invention of writing, to the time of Homer. Not surprisingly, Greek has changed greatly over the course of thousands of years, so that modern speakers cannot understand the language of Homer, Aeschylus, or the New Testament without special training. Up until the twentieth century, the archaic (καθαρεύουσα, "katharevousa," "purist") form of the language was the only one with cultural prestige, and was the formal language of government. Greeks without a high level of education were, for example, obliged to sign legal documents written in a language that they could not understand. Over the course of the twentieth century, however, the written language was changed to resemble the modern spoken language, becoming the modern demotic language (δημοτική, "of the people"), which is now the official language of the Greek and Cypriot state. The last change became effective as late as 1981, with the abolition of the polytonic system. This book is about the modern language, not classical or biblical Greek. Many words from Ancient Greek are still used today, unchanged for thousands of years, like άνθρωπος (anthropos - man) or θάλασσα (thalassa - sea).
השפה היוונית היא אחת השפות הכתובות העתיקות ביותר בעולם, והספרות היוונית מתמקדת בזמן בו המציאו את הכתב, בזמן הומרוס. שלא במפתיע, היוונית השתנתה באלפי השנים במידה עצומה, עד שאפילו דוברים של השפה המודרנית אינם יכולים להבין את השפה העתיקה שבתקופת הומרוס, אייסכילוס, או הברית החדשה ללא לימוד מתאים. עד למאה העשרים, הצורה העתיקה של השפה
[עריכה] תנועות
Greek has five vowel sounds, all vowels are pronounced nearer the English long rather than short: בשפה היוונית קיימות 5 תנועות עיקריות:
| α | as in father |
| ε | as in bet |
| ι | as in bit |
| ο | as in more |
| ου | as in boot |
Throughout this book, tables highlighted in this color have (or will eventually have) audio recordings to go with them.
As you can see from these examples, many letters in the Greek alphabet look like their counterparts in English. There are multiple spellings for some of these sounds:
| ι, η, υ, οι, ει, and υι all sound alike. |
| ε and αι sound alike. |
| ο and ω sound alike. |
[עריכה] עיצורים
The following letters sound like the English letters they resemble:
| κ, τ |
Note: If you're a native English speaker, try to pronounce a plain τ, that is without the "h" sound in the end.
Reading practice:
| τα, τι, η, τη, το, του, τω, κάτω, κότα, άκου |
Most greek words have a stressed syllable which in words of more than one syllable is shown with an accent over the stressed vowel.
Vocabulary:
| κακό | bad |
| κατά | against, according to, toward |
The following Greek consonants sound like familiar sounds from English, but look different from their English counterparts:
| β | vie | λ | low | π | pie |
| δ | the | μ | mow | σ,ς | sigh |
| ζ | zoo | ν | no | φ | fie |
| θ | thigh | ξ | axe | ψ | oops |
The letter sigma, σ, is written as ς at the end of a word. Some Greek speakers pronounce the sigma sound so that it sounds half-way between s and sh.
Vocabulary and reading practice:
| ναι | yes |
| καλό | good |
| πού | where |
| με | with |
| από | from |
| σε | in |
| αλλά | but |
The following Greek consonants have sounds not found in English:
| γ | a soft, gargling g sound, except before the sounds ε and ι, where it sounds like y |
| ρ | like Spanish r |
| χ | like the ch in Scottish loch |
Vocabulary and reading practice:
| γράφω | I write |
| για | for |
| γιατί | why?, because |
| προς | to, toward |
| όχι | no |
| παρακαλώ | please |
The following combinations of letters have sounds that have to be learned:
| ου | oo |
| αυ | av before vowel or voiced consonant, else af |
| ευ | ev before vowel or voiced consonant, else ef |
| ηυ | iv before vowel or voiced consonant, else if |
| μπ | b at the beginning of a word, mb elsewhere |
| ντ | d at the beginning of a word, nd elsewhere |
| χε, χαι | hye |
| κε, και | kye |
Vocabulary and reading practice:
| και | and |
| ή | or |
| αυτός | he |
| αύριο | tomorrow |
| ευχαριστώ | I give thanks, thank you (~"Eucharist") |
| γυρεύω | I look for |
| μπορώ | I can |
| χαίρετε | Rejoice! (a greeting and leave-taking) |
| καλοκαίρι | summer |
One of the big obstacles for an English speaker trying to learn Greek is that so few common usage words are related to English ones (although an estimated 10% to 20% of the total English vocabulary has Greek roots, most of it though of scientific/technical nature). However, sometimes there is a relationship that would help you to remember the Greek word, but the relationship isn't obvious, as with ευχαριστώ and Eucharist. When this happens, we'll note it as in the example above, with ~. This may mean that the English word is derived from the Greek one, or merely that both the English word and the Greek one come from a common root.
שמות האותיות:
| α | άλφα | ι | γιώτα (או ιώτα) | ρ | ρω (או ρο) |
| β | βήτα | κ | κάππα (או κάπα) | σ | σίγμα |
| γ | γάμμα | λ | λάμδα (או λάμβδα) | τ | ταυ |
| δ | δέλτα | μ | μι | υ | ύψιλον |
| ε | έψιλον | ν | νι | φ | φι |
| ζ | ζήτα | ξ | ξι | χ | χι |
| η | ήτα | ο | όμικρον | ψ | ψι |
| θ | θήτα | π | πι | ω | ωμέγα |
[עריכה] כינויי גוף
ביוונית ישנם שלושה מינים: זכר, נקבה וסתמי. להלן כינויי הגוף:
| εγώ | אני | εμείς | אנחנו |
| εσύ | את/ה | εσείς | אתם/ן |
| αυτός | הוא | αυτοί | הם |
| αυτή | היא | αυτές | הן |
| αυτό | סתמי (it) | αυτά | הם (סתמי) |
The second-person plural is also used as the formal form of address, even when speaking to a single person.
[עריכה] פעלים
[עריכה] הטייה ראשונה
The subject pronouns are usually omitted, because the form of the verb indicates the subject. For example:
| γράφω | אני כותב/ת |
| γράφεις | את/ה כותב/ת |
| γράφει | היא/הוא כותב/ת |
| γράφουμε | אנחנו כותבים/כותבות |
| γράφετε | אתם/אתן כותבים/כותבות |
| γράφουν | הם/הן כותבים/כותבות |
There is no infinitive in modern Greek. For naming a verb, the first-person singular of the present tense is used as a generic term. For example, we refer to the verb γράφω, to write.
To summarize the conjugation of a verb, we write it in a table like this:
| γράφω | γράφουμε |
| γράφεις | γράφετε |
| γράφει | γράφουν |
Γράφω is an example of a verb belonging to the first conjugation. Verbs in this conjugation can be recognized because their accent falls before the final ω.
The following verbs belong to the first conjugation:
| δίνω | give (~"donate") |
| αλλάζω | change |
| διαβάζω | read |
| κοιτάζω | look at |
| βλέπω | see |
| ακούω | hear |
| φτάνω | arrive |
| φεύγω | leave |
| παίρνω | take |
| αγοράζω | buy |
| ξέρω | know |
| νομίζω | think |
| βάζω | put |
| πίνω | drink |
Vocabulary: הקלטה: {{{2}}} (help·info)
Conjugations of some of these verbs: הקלטה: {{{2}}} (help·info)
[עריכה] The verbs έχω, to have, and είμαι, to be
Two important verbs are έχω, to have, and είμαι, to be. The first-conjugation verb έχω is regular in the present tense, so it has the same endings as γράφω.
| έχω | έχουμε |
| έχεις | έχετε |
| έχει | έχουν |
To be in English is expressed in the active voice, but the Greek είμαι is passive, and doesn't have an active form. The ending -μαι is a typical, regular ending for passive verbs. Although we won't be concerned with passive constructions until later, είμαι is so important that you need to get it under your belt right away.
| είμαι | είμαστε |
| είσαι | είστε |
| είναι | είναι |
[עריכה] אותיות גדולות
Now that we're ready to handle complete sentences, we need capital letters. Most of the capital letters of the Greek alphabet are similar in form either to the lowercase letters, or to their counterparts in the Latin alphabet:
| α | Α | ι | Ι | ρ | Ρ |
| β | Β | κ | Κ | σ | Σ |
| γ | Γ | λ | Λ | τ | Τ |
| δ | Δ | μ | Μ | υ | Υ |
| ε | Ε | ν | Ν | φ | Φ |
| ζ | Ζ | ξ | Ξ | χ | Χ |
| η | Η | ο | Ο | ψ | Ψ |
| θ | Θ | π | Π | ω | Ω |
[עריכה] משפטים
The order of words in a Greek sentence is much more free than in English, but you can correctly construct a sentence using the familiar English syntax of subject+verb, or subject+verb+object. The subject is usually omitted when it is a pronoun.
משפטים:
| Είναι καλό. | זה טוב. |
| Είναι κακό. | זה רע. |
ביוונית, שמות תואר משנים את האופן בו הם מסתיימים בהתאם למין ולמספר שמות העצם אותם הם מתארים. The following vocabulary list introduces some nouns that happen to be neuter, and some adjectives, which are given in neuter form. The word το is the definite article, like English "the," used with singular neuter nouns.
אוצר מילים:
| νερό | מים |
| κρασί | יין |
| τσάι | תה |
| καυτό | חם |
| κρύο | קר |
| άσπρο | לבן |
| κόκκινο | אדום |
| θέλω | לרצות |
משפטים:
| Το νερό είναι κρύο. | המים קרים. |
| Το κρασί είναι κρύο. | היין קר. |
| Το τσάι είναι καυτό. | התה חם. |
| Το άσπρο κρασί είναι κρύο. | היין הלבן קר. |
בשלילה כותבים δεν לפני הפועל. The question mark in Greek is the semicolon.
משפטים:
| Το κόκκινο κρασί δεν είναι κρύο. | היין האדום לא קר. |
| Το νερό δεν είναι καυτό. | המים לא חמים. |
דיאלוג:
| Χαίρετε. | שלום. |
| Χαίρετε. | שלום. |
| Έχετε τσάι; | יש לכם תה? |
| Οχι, δεν έχουμε τσάι. Θέλετε νερό; | לא, אין לנו תה. האם אתה רוצה מים? |
| Ναι, ευχαριστώ. | כן, תודה. |
[עריכה] דיאלוג 1
Greeting others
Mark: Γειά σας. Anna: Kαλημέρα. Mark: Τι κάνετε; Anna: Πολύ καλά και εσείς; Mark: Πολύ καλά.
[עריכה] Vocabulary
| Γειά σας | Hello! |
| Kαλημέρα | Good morning |
| Τι κάνετε | How are you? |
| Πολύ καλά | Very well |
| Και εσείς | And you? |
[עריכה] דיאלוג 2
Introducing yourself
Mark: Πως σε λέvε; Anna: Mε λέvε Άvvα.
[עריכה] Vocabulary
| Πως | How |
| σε λένε | they call you |
| με λένε | they call me |
[עריכה] סיכום האלף-בית וההיגוי
[עריכה] אלף-בית / Αλφάβητο
The Greek Language was one of the first written languages in all world. The script used had some peculiarities not observed today: for instance, the vowels were not written, and one needed to guess or to know their specific place inside the word. This alphabet has been evolving, through contact with other cultures and through the simple action of the time, until it became what it is today. Amongst the Greek alphabet, we can spot some (or even many) similarities with the Latin (or Roman) one. The alphabet used nowadays has 24 letters: 7 vowels and 17 consonants.
| אות | שם עברי | English Name | Greek Name |
|---|---|---|---|
| A a | אַלְפָא | alpha | άλφα |
| Β β | בִיטָא | vita | βήτα |
| Γ γ | גַאמָא | gamma | γάμμα |
| Δ δ | דֶ'לְתָא | dhelta | δέλτα |
| Ε ε | אֶפְּסִילוֹן | epsilon | έψιλον |
| Ζ ζ | זִיטָא | zita | ζήτα |
| Η η | אִיטָא | ita | ήτα |
| Θ θ | טִ'יתָא | thita | θήτα |
| Ι ι | יוֹטָא | iota | ιώτα |
| Κ κ | קַאפָּא | kappa | κάπα |
| Λ λ | לַמְדָ'א | lambdha | λάμδα |
| Μ μ | מִי | mi | μι |
| Ν ν | נִי | ni | νι |
| Ξ ξ | קְסִי | ksi | ξι |
| Ο ο | אוֹמִיקְרוֹן | omicron | όμικρον |
| Π π | פִּי | pi | πι |
| Ρ ρ | רוֹ | rho | ρω |
| Σ σ* | סִיגְמָא | sigma | σίγμα |
| Τ τ | תָאף | taf | ταυ |
| Υ υ | אִיפְּסִילוֹן | ypsilon | ύψιλον |
| Φ φ | פִי | phi | φι |
| Χ χ | חִ'י | chi | χι |
| Ψ ψ | פְּסִי | psi | ψι |
| Ω ω | אוֹמֶגָה | omega | ωμέγα |
| * The sigma has a special lowercase form, used only at the end of words. Both lowercase sigmas have the same value. | |||
Besides the alphabet, there is also an accent ( ´ ) and a diaresis( ¨ ). The use of thiese two diacritics is discussed in the next section.
[עריכה] היגוי אותיות האלף-בית
Greek sounds are, in general, soft. As a major rule, each letter carries a single sound (this is not universal, but almost, as we'll see later in this page). As in the previous chapter, we see here a table with the various letters. This time, the columns represent not the name, but the approximate sound of the letters.
| Letter | How to say it | IPA | XSAMPA |
|---|---|---|---|
| A α | arc | [[w:Open front unrounded vowel|a]] | a |
| Β β | voice | [[w:Voiced labiodental fricative|v]] | v |
| Γ γ | yes before the vowels that sounds like bed and see,
otherwise like Spanish agua |
[[w:Voiced palatal fricative|ʝ]] before [[w:Open-mid front unrounded vowel#Mid front unrounded vowel|ɛ]] or [[w:Close front unrounded vowel|i]]; [[w:Voiced velar fricative|ɣ]] otherwise | G |
| Δ δ | this | [[w:Voiced dental fricative|ð]] | D |
| Ε ε | bed | [[w:Open-mid front unrounded vowel#Mid front unrounded vowel|ɛ]] | E |
| Ζ ζ | zoo | [[w:Voiced alveolar fricative|z]] | z |
| Η η | see | [[w:Open-mid unrounded vowel|i]] | i |
| Θ θ | thin | [[w:Voiceless dental fricative|θ]] | T |
| Ι ι | see | [[w:Close front unrounded vowel|i]] | i |
| Κ κ | cute before certain vowels, else knock | [[w:Voiceless palatal plosive|c]] before [[w:Open-mid front unrounded vowel#Mid front unrounded vowel|ɛ]] or [[w:Close front unrounded vowel|i]]; [[w:Voiceless velar plosive|k]] otherwise | c, k |
| Λ λ | lamp | [[w:Alveolar lateral approximant|l]] | l |
| Μ μ | mine | [[w:Bilabial nasal|m]] | m |
| Ν ν | nine | [[w:Alveolar nasal|n]] | n |
| Ξ ξ | excelent | ks | k_s |
| Ο ο | form | [[w:Open-mid back rounded vowel#Mid back rounded vowel|ɔ]] | O |
| Π π | people | [[w:Voiceless bilabial plosive|p]] | p |
| Ρ ρ | like Spanish pero | [[w:Alveolar flap|ɾ]] | 4 |
| Σ σ | before β,ζ,γ,δ,λ,μ,ν,ρ sounds like zoo, otherwise like soup | [[w:Voiceless alveolar fricative|s]] | s |
| Τ τ | hate | [[w:Voiceless alveolar plosive|t]] | t |
| Υ υ | see | [[w:Close front unrounded vowel|i]] | i |
| Φ φ | photo | [[w:Voiceless labiodental fricative|f]] | f |
| Χ χ | like German ich before certain vowels, else like German Loch | [[w:Voiceless palatal fricative|ç]] before [[w:Open-mid front unrounded vowel#Mid front unrounded vowel|ɛ]] or [[w:Close front unrounded vowel|i]]; [[w:Voiceless velar fricative|x]] otherwise | C, x |
| Ψ ψ | maps | ps | p_s |
| Ω ω | from | [[w:Open-mid back rounded vowel#Mid back rounded vowel|ɔ]] | O |
Note: The letter Γγ is the most dificult to pronounce for an English speaker: it is like a stronger h, simultanious with the vibration of the vocal cords; in other words, it is the voiced counterpart of the χ. Before e and i vowels, it is pronounced as a y like in the word yes.
[עריכה] דיפטונג
דיפטונג are combinations of two vowels that function as a unique sound. Note that in Modern Greek, the word Diphthong (δίφθογγος) is also used for combination of vowels that sound like a simple vowel. There are eight diphthongs in Modern Greek. There are also some similar combinations of consonants:
| Diphthong | How to say it | IPA | XSAMPA |
|---|---|---|---|
| αι | bed | [[w:Open-mid front unrounded vowel#Mid front unrounded vowel|ɛ]] | e |
| αυ | have before certain letters, after before others | av, af | av, af |
| ει | see | [[w:Open-mid unrounded vowel|i]] | i |
| ευ | ever before certain letters, effect before others | ɛv, ɛf | ev, ef |
| ηυ | evening before certain letters, beef before others | iv, if | iv, if |
| οι | see | [[w:Open-mid unrounded vowel|i]] | i |
| ου | soon | [[w:Close back rounded vowel|u]] | u |
| υι | see | [[w:Open-mid unrounded vowel|i]] | i |
| γγ | finger | [[w:Velar nasal|ŋ]g] | ng |
| γκ | good at the beginning of words, finger anywhere else | [[w:Voiced velar plosive|g]], [[w:Velar nasal|ŋ]g] | g, ng |
| μπ | banana at the beginning of words, tumb anywhere else | [[w:Voiced bilabial plosive|b]], [mb] | b, mb |
| ντ | day at the beginning of words, sand anywhere else | [[w:Voiced dental plosive|d]], [nd] | d, nd |
| τσ | sweets | ts | |
| τζ | jump | j | |
| γχ | anchor | nch |
[עריכה] הטעם והסימנים הדיאקריטיים
Most Greek words have a stressed syllable which is the syllable said with more strength: for instance, in the english words comfort and peculiarity, the stressed syllables are com and ar, respectively.
Greek marks the stressed syllable with an accent mark ( ΄ ) over the vowel. In one-syllable words, the accent is usually omitted. When the stress falls on a syllable that has a diphthong, the accent is used above the last letter of this diphthong. Thus, words like Παύλος (Paul) ou γυναίκα (woman), are correctly accented.
If the accent is put on the first vowel of a diphthong, it is not read as a diphthong but read as two independent vowels, as in the word ρολόι (watch or clock), which has three syllables, not two. On the other hand, if one wishes to separate the diphthong, but the accent falls on other syllable, the diaresis ( ¨ ) is used, as in the word Εβραϊκός (Hebrew).
There are, however, some words that aren't stressed (usually monosyllabic gramatical words), and these don't have an accent. Words like these are read as affixes added to the main word. Examples:
- ο (the masc.) "Ο πατέρας" (The father) is read as a single word - aw-pah-TE-ras;
- μου (my), "Ο πατέρας μου" (My father) is also read as a single word - aw-pa-TE-raz-mu.
Every stressed word with more than one syllable carries an accent. However, there are monosyllabic words that also have accent, like ή (or) and πού (where). This accent has a double function:
- It distinguishes words that, otherwise, would be equal - η (the fem.) and που (that, which);
- It marks words as strong, unlike their weak comparing counterparts.
[עריכה] דיאלוג
Αντώνης: Γεια σου
! Ανθή: Γεια σου
! Αντώνης: Πώς είσαι
; Ανθή: Είμαι καλά, εσύ πώς είσαι
; Αντώνης: Είμαι καλά
. Ανθή: Πώς σε λένε [1] (not used
)); Αντώνης: Με λένε Αντώνη (answers the first question) (or "Το όνομα μου είναι Αντώνης" (answers the second question
)). Ανθή: (Εμένα) με λένε Ανθή (or "Το όνομα μου είναι Ανθή"). Χαίρω πολύ
! Αντώνης: Χαίρω πολύ επίσης
.
Ανθή: Γεια σου! Αντώνης: Γεια σου
!
